| Peanut | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Peanut (Arachis hypogea) | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| (unranked): | Angiosperms |
| (unranked): | Eudicots |
| (unranked): | Rosids |
| Order: | Fabales |
| Family: | Fabaceae |
| Subfamily: | Faboideae |
| Tribe: | Aeschynomeneae |
| Genus: | Arachis |
| Species: | A. hypogaea |
| Binomial name | |
| Arachis hypogaea L. | |
Peanuts are known by many other local names such as earthnuts, ground nuts, goober peas, monkey nuts, pygmy nuts and pig nuts.[2][3][4]
Contents
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History
The domesticated peanut is an amphidiploid or allotetraploid, meaning that it has two sets of chromosomes from two different species, thought to be A. duranensis and A. ipaensis. These likely combined in the wild to form the tetraploid species A. monticola, which gave rise to the domesticated peanut.[5] This domestication might have taken place in Paraguay or Bolivia, where the wildest strains grow today. Many pre-Columbian cultures, such as the Moche, depicted peanuts in their art.[6]
Archeologists have (thus far) dated the oldest specimens to about 7,600 years found in Peru.[7] Cultivation spread as far as Mesoamerica where the Spanish conquistadors found the tlalcacahuatl (Nahuatl = 'peanut,' whence Mexican Spanish, cacahuate and French, cacahuète) being offered for sale in the marketplace of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City). The plant was later spread worldwide by European traders.
Cultivation
The pods act in nutrient absorption. The fruits have wrinkled shells that are constricted between pairs of the one to four (usually two) seeds per pod.
Peanuts grow best in light, sandy loam soil. They require five months of warm weather, and an annual rainfall of 500 to 1,000 mm (20 to 39 in) or the equivalent in irrigation water.[2]
The pods ripen 120 to 150 days after the seeds are planted. If the crop is harvested too early, the pods will be unripe. If they are harvested late, the pods will snap off at the stalk, and will remain in the soil.[8]
Peanuts are particularly susceptible to contamination during growth and storage. Poor storage of peanuts can lead to an infection by the mold fungus Aspergillus flavus, releasing the toxic and highly carcinogenic substance aflatoxin. The aflatoxin-producing molds exist throughout the peanut growing areas and may produce aflatoxin in peanuts when conditions are favorable to fungal growth.
Harvesting occurs in two stages. In mechanized systems a machine is used to cut off the main root of the peanut plant by cutting through the soil just below the level of the peanut pods. The machine lifts the "bush" from the ground and shakes it, then inverts the bush, leaving the plant upside down on the ground to keep the peanuts out of the dirt. This allows the peanuts to dry slowly to a bit less than a third of their original moisture level over a period of 3–4 days. Traditionally, peanuts are pulled and inverted by hand.
After the peanuts have dried sufficiently, they are threshed, removing the peanut pods from the rest of the bush.[8]
Cultivation in China
The peanut was introduced to China by Portuguese traders in the 17th century and another variety by American missionaries in the 19th century.[citation needed]
They became popular and are featured in many Chinese dishes, often being boiled. During the 1980s peanut production began to increase so greatly that as of 2006 China was the world's largest peanut producer. A major factor in this increase was the household-responsibility system, which moved financial control from the government to the farmers.[9][10]
Production
China leads in production of peanuts having a share of about 41.5% of overall world production, followed by India (18.2%) and the United States of America (6.8%).
| Country | Production (Million Metric Tons) |
|---|---|
 People's Republic of China | 14.30 |
 India | 6.25 |
 United States | 2.34 |
 Nigeria | 1.55 |
 Indonesia | 1.25 |
 Myanmar | 1.00 |
 Sudan | 0.85 |
 Senegal | 0.71 |
 Argentina | 0.58 |
 Vietnam | 0.50 |
| World | 34.43 |
| Source: USDA Foreign Agricultural Service: Table 13 Peanut Area, Yield, and Production | |
Cultivars
Each year new cultivars of peanuts are bred and introduced. Introducing a new cultivar may mean change in the planting rate, adjusting the planter, harvester, dryer, cleaner, sheller, and method of marketing.
Spanish group
The small Spanish types are grown in South Africa, and in the southwestern and southeastern U.S. Prior to 1940, 90% of the peanuts grown in Georgia, USA were Spanish types, but the trend since then has been larger seeded, higher yielding, more disease resistant cultivars. Spanish peanuts have a higher oil content than other types of peanuts and in the U.S. are now primarily grown in Oklahoma and Texas.Cultivars of the Spanish group include "Dixie Spanish", "Improved Spanish 2B", "GFA Spanish", "Argentine", "Spantex", "Spanette", "Shaffers Spanish", "Natal Common (Spanish)", "White Kernel Varieties", "Starr", "Comet", "Florispan", "Spanhoma", "Spancross", "OLin", "Tamspan 90", "AT 9899-14", "Spanco" "Wilco I", "GG 2", "GG 4" and "TMV 2".
Runner group
Since 1940, the southeastern U.S. region has seen a shift to production of Runner group peanuts. This shift is due to good flavor, better roasting characteristics and higher yields when compared to Spanish types leading to food manufacturers' preference for use in peanut butter and salting. Georgia's production is now almost 100% Runner type.[11]Cultivars of Runners include "Southeastern Runner 56-15", "Dixie Runner", "Early Runner", "Virginia Bunch 67", "Bradford Runner", "Egyptian Giant" (also known as "Virginia Bunch" and "Giant"), "Rhodesian Spanish Bunch" (Valencia and Virginia Bunch), "North Carolina Runner 56-15", "Virugard", "Georgia Green", "Tamrun 96", "Flavor Runner 458", "Tamrun OL01", "Tamrun OL02" and "AT-108".
Virginia group
The large seeded Virginia Group peanuts are grown in the following US states: Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and parts of Georgia. They are increasing in popularity due to demand for large peanuts for processing, particularly for salting, confections, and roasting in the shells.Virginia Group peanuts are either bunch or running in growth habit. The bunch type is upright to spreading. It attains a height of 45 to 55 cm (18 to 22 in), and a spread of 70 to 80 cm (28 to 31 in), with 80 to 90 cm (31 to 35 in) rows that seldom cover the ground. The pods are borne within 5 to 10 cm of the base of the plant.
Cultivars of Virginia type peanuts include NC 7, NC 9, NC 10C, NC-V 11, VA 93B, NC 12C, VA-C 92R, Gregory, VA 98R, Perry, Wilson, Hull, AT VC-2 and Shulamit.
Valencia group
Valencia Group peanuts are coarse, and they have heavy reddish stems and large foliage. In the U.S. large commercial production is primarily in Eastern New Mexico, especially in and around Portales, New Mexico, but they are grown on a small scale elsewhere in the South as the best flavored and preferred type for boiled peanuts. They are comparatively tall, having a height of 125 cm (49 in) and a spread of 75 cm (30 in). Peanut pods are borne on pegs arising from the main stem and the side branches. Most of the pods are clustered around the base of the plant, and only a few are found several inches away. Valencia types are three seeded and smooth, with no constriction between the seeds. Seeds are oval and tightly crowded into the pods. There are two strains, one with flesh and the other with red seeds. Typical seed weight is 0.4 to 0.5 g.Tennessee Red and Tennessee White groups
These are alike, except for the color of the seed. Sometimes known also as Texas Red or White, the plants are similar to Valencia types, except that the stems are green to greenish brown, and the pods are rough, irregular, and have a smaller proportion of kernels.Uses
Varied applications
Arctic and Antarctic expeditions
George Washington Carver
Main article: George Washington Carver Peanut Discoveries
George Washington Carver, born in Missouri in 1864 was, and still is, one of the most famous African Americans ever to be born in the U.S. after acquiring quite the reputation and celebrity status for his inventive use of the peanut, its versatility, and the seemingly never ending variety of applications and uses he came up with involving it in his lifetime. Before his death in 1943, he had invented nearly 300 uses for peanuts (as well as hundreds of other uses for soybeans, pecans and sweet potatoes), most of which were patented. However, many of his inventions involving the peanut were impractical and/or unrealistic, resulting in none of his inventions ever reaching any discernible level of commercial success. Contrary to popular thought, G.W. Carver did not invent peanut butter, but hailed its invention and use. Although peanut farming was already catching on and becoming popular, Carver's inventive spirit, his promotion of the peanut and its many uses and his glowing reputation of scientific achievement helped bolster the image of peanuts and peanut farming to new heights around the early part of the 1900's.[12][13][14]Peanut oil
Peanut oil is often used in cooking, because it has a mild flavor and a relatively high smoke point. Due to its high monounsaturated content it is considered more healthy than saturated oils, and is resistant to rancidity. There are several types of peanut oil including: aromatic roasted peanut oil, refined peanut oil, extra virgin or cold pressed peanut oil and peanut extract. In the United States, refined peanut oil is exempt from allergen labeling laws.[15]Peanut flour
Peanut flour is lower in fat than peanut butter, and is popular with chefs because its high protein content makes it suitable as a flavor enhancer[citation needed]. Peanut flour is used as a gluten-free solution.Cuisine
Peru
Peanuts are common ingredients in Peruvian Creole cuisine reflecting the marriage of native ingredients and ingredients introduced by Europeans. In one example peanuts are roasted along with hot peppers (both native to South America) and blended with roasted onions, garlic, and oil (all of European origin) to make a smooth sauce poured over boiled potatoes. This dish is especially famous in the city of Arequipa and is known as "papas con ocopa". Another example combines a similar mixture with sautéed seafood or boiled and shredded chicken in the form of a fricassee. These dishes are generally known as ajis (the word for hot peppers), such as aji de pollo and aji de mariscos. Not all cooks use peanuts in seafood "ajis".During Colonial times the Spanish in Peru learned to use ingredients like peanuts in substitution for nuts which were unavailable in Peru. It is well-documented that Spanish cuisine makes extensive use of almonds, pine nuts, and other nuts, in ground or paste form, combined with rice, meats and vegetables, to create dishes like rice pilaf. However, almonds, pine nuts, chestnuts, walnuts, etc. were too expensive or unobtainable in Peru.
India
In south Asian countries, peanuts are known as either a light snack by themselves, usually roasted and salted (sometimes with the addition of chilli powder, especially in Karnataka), and often sold roasted in pod on roads in the north, or boiled with salt in the south. They are also made into little dessert or sweet snack pieces by processing with refined sugar and jaggery. Indian cuisine uses roasted, crushed peanuts to give a crunchy body to salads; they are added whole (without pods) to leafy vegetable stews for the same reason. Another use of peanut oil as cooking oil . Most indians use Mustard , sunflower and peanut oil for cooking.Southeast Asia
Peanuts are also widely used in Southeast Asian cuisine, particularly Indonesia, where they are typically made into a spicy sauce. Peanuts originally came to Indonesia from the Philippines, where the legume came from Mexico in times of Spanish colonization.Common Indonesian peanut-based dishes include gado-gado, pecel, karedok and ketoprak, all vegetable salads mixed with peanut sauce, and the peanut-based sauce for satay.
Zambia/Malawi
Peanuts are a common ingredient of several types of relishes (dishes which accompany nshima) eaten by the tribes in Malawi and in the eastern part of Zambia, and these dishes are now common throughout both countries. In this area they are always called groundnuts.The United States
In the US, peanuts are used in candies, cakes, cookies, and other sweets. They are also enjoyed roasted and salted. Peanut butter is one of the most popular peanut-based foods in the US. In some southern portions of the US, peanuts are boiled for several hours until soft and moist.Boiled peanuts
Boiled peanuts are a popular snack in the southern United States, as well as in India and China. Peanuts are also used in the Mali meat stew maafe, and in many sauces for South American meat dishes, especially rabbit.Malnutrition
Peanuts are used to help fight malnutrition. Plumpy Nut and Medika Mamba[16] are high protein, high energy and high nutrient peanut-based pastes that were developed to be used as a therapeutic food to aid in famine relief. Organizations like the World Health Organization, UNICEF, Project Peanut Butter and Doctors Without Borders have used these products to help save malnourished children in developing countries.Other uses
Peanuts can be used like other legumes and grains to make a lactose-free milk-like beverage, peanut milk. Peanut plant tops are used for hay.Low grade or culled peanuts not suitable for the edible market are used in the production of peanut oil. The protein cake (oilcake meal) residue from oil processing is used as an animal feed and as a soil fertilizer. Low grade peanuts are also widely sold as a garden bird feed.
Peanuts have a variety of industrial end uses. Paint, varnish, lubricating oil, leather dressings, furniture polish, insecticides, and nitroglycerin are made from peanut oil. Soap is made from saponified oil, and many cosmetics contain peanut oil and its derivatives. The protein portion of the oil is used in the manufacture of some textile fibers. Peanut shells are used in the manufacture of plastic, wallboard, abrasives, fuel, cellulose (used in rayon and paper) and mucilage (glue). Rudolf Diesel ran some of the first engines that bear his name on peanut oil[17] and it is still seen as a potentially useful fuel.[18]
Nutritional value
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
|---|---|
| Energy | 2,385 kJ (570 kcal) |
| Carbohydrates | 21 g |
| Sugars | 0.0 g |
| Dietary fiber | 9 g |
| Fat | 48 g |
| saturated | 7 g |
| monounsaturated | 24 g |
| polyunsaturated | 16 g |
| Protein | 25 g |
| Tryptophan | 0.2445 g |
| Threonine | 0.859 g |
| Isoleucine | 0.882 g |
| Leucine | 1.627 g |
| Lysine | 0.901 g |
| Methionine | 0.308 g |
| Cystine | 0.322 g |
| Phenylalanine | 1.300 g |
| Tyrosine | 1.020 g |
| Valine | 1.052 g |
| Arginine | 3.001 g |
| Histidine | 0.634 g |
| Alanine | 0.997 g |
| Aspartic acid | 3.060 g |
| Glutamic acid | 5.243 g |
| Glycine | 1.512 g |
| Proline | 1.107 g |
| Serine | 1.236 g |
| Water | 4.26 g |
| Thiamine (Vit. B1) | 0.6 mg (46%) |
| Riboflavin (Vit. B2) | 0.3 mg (20%) |
| Niacin (Vit. B3) | 12.9 mg (86%) |
| Pantothenic acid (B5) | 1.8 mg (36%) |
| Vitamin B6 | 0.3 mg (23%) |
| Folate (Vit. B9) | 246 μg (62%) |
| Vitamin C | 0.0 mg (0%) |
| Calcium | 62 mg (6%) |
| Iron | 2 mg (16%) |
| Magnesium | 184 mg (50%) |
| Phosphorus | 336 mg (48%) |
| Potassium | 332 mg (7%) |
| Zinc | 3.3 mg (33%) |
| Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient databas | |
Health benefits
Peanuts are rich in nutrients, providing over 30 essential nutrients and phytonutrients. Peanuts are a good source of niacin, folate, fiber, magnesium, vitamin E, manganese and phosphorus. They also are naturally free of trans-fats and sodium, and contain about 25% protein (a higher proportion than in any true nut).[19]While peanuts are considered high in fat, they primarily contain “good” fats also known as unsaturated fats. One serving of peanuts contains 11.5 g unsaturated fat and 2 g of saturated fat.
Some brands of peanut butter are fortified with omega-3 fatty acid in the form of flaxseed oil to balance the ratio of omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids.
Niacin
Peanuts are a good source of niacin, and thus contribute to brain health and blood flow.[20]Antioxidants
Recent research on peanuts and nuts in general has found antioxidants and other chemicals that may provide health benefits.[21] New research shows peanuts rival the antioxidant content of many fruits. Roasted peanuts rival the antioxidant content of blackberries and strawberries, and are far richer in antioxidants than carrots or beets. Research conducted by a team of University of Florida scientists, published in the journal Food Chemistry, shows that peanuts contain high concentrations of antioxidant polyphenols, primarily a compound called p-coumaric acid, and that roasting can increase peanuts' p-coumaric acid levels, boosting their overall antioxidant content by as much as 22%.[22]Resveratrol
Peanuts are a significant source of resveratrol, a chemical studied for potential anti-aging effects and also associated with reduced cardiovascular disease and reduced cancer risk.[23]It has recently been found that the average amount of resveratrol in one ounce of commonly eaten peanuts (15 whole peanut kernels) is 73 μg.[24]
Coenzyme Q10
Peanuts are a source of coenzyme Q10, as are oily fish, beef, soybeans and spinach.[25]Health concerns
Allergies
Main article: Peanut allergy
Some people (1-2% of the US population) have mild to severe allergic reactions. For some people with peanut allergy, exposure can cause fatal anaphylactic shock. For these individuals, eating a small amount of peanut or just breathing the dust from peanuts[citation needed] can cause a fatal reaction. An allergic reaction also can be triggered by eating foods that have been processed with machines that have previously processed peanuts,[citation needed] making the avoidance of such food difficult.A hypothesis of the development of peanut allergy has to do with the way peanuts are processed in North America versus other countries, like Pakistan and China.Peanuts are widely eaten in China and Pakistan.In Pakistan, peanut is produced in potohar plateau is heavily produced and consumed. Rawalpindi region area are the production units of peanuts, but peanut allergies are almost unheard of there.[citation needed] According to a 2003 study, roasting peanuts, as more commonly done in North America, causes the major peanut allergen Ara h2 to become a stronger inhibitor of the digestive enzyme trypsin, making it more resistant to digestion.[26] Additionally, this allergen has also been shown to protect Ara h1, another major peanut allergen, from digestion—a characteristic further enhanced by roasting.[26]
Another hypothesis, called the hygiene hypothesis, states that a lack of early childhood exposure to infectious agents like germs and parasites could be causing the increase of food allergies.[27]
Recent (2008) studies comparing age of peanut introduction in Great Britain with introduction in Israel appear to show that delaying exposure to peanuts can dramatically increase the risk of developing peanut allergies.[28][29]
Results from some animal studies (and limited evidence from human subjects) suggest that the dose of peanuts is an important mediator of peanut sensitisation and tolerance; low doses tend to lead to sensitisation and higher doses tend to lead to tolerance.[30]
Though the allergy can last a lifetime, another 2003 study indicates that 23.3% of children will outgrow a peanut allergy.[31]
Peanut allergy has been associated with the use of skin preparations containing peanut oil among children, but the evidence is not regarded as conclusive.[32] Peanut allergies have also been associated with family history and intake of soy products.[32]
Some school districts in the U.S.A have banned peanuts.[33][34][35] There are experimental techniques which appear to have desensitized some allergic individuals.[36] The most popular technique, oral immunotherapy, works to create desensitization in those peanut allergic by feeding them small amounts of peanut until their body becomes desensitized.
Research indicates that refined peanut oil will not cause allergic reactions in most people with peanut allergies.[37] However, crude (unrefined) peanut oils are strongly flavoured, and have been shown to contain protein, which may cause allergic reactions.[38]
In a randomized, double-blind crossover study, 60 people with proven peanut allergy were challenged with both crude peanut oil and refined peanut oil. The authors conclude, “Crude peanut oil caused allergic reactions in 10% of allergic subjects studied and should continue to be avoided.” They also state, “Refined peanut oil does not seem to pose a risk to most people with peanut allergy.” However, they point out that refined peanut oil can still pose a risk to peanut-allergic individuals if oil that has previously been used to cook foods containing peanuts is reused.[39]
Some progress is possibly being made in the UK, where researchers at Cambridge are studying the effectiveness of the desensitization technique.[40]
Contamination and aflatoxin
Peanuts may be contaminated with the mold Aspergillus flavus which produces a carcinogenic substance called aflatoxin. Lower quality specimens, particularly where mold is evident, are more likely to be contaminated.[41] USDA tests every truckload of raw peanuts for aflatoxin; any containing aflatoxin levels of more than 20 parts per billion are destroyed. The peanut industry has manufacturing steps in place to ensure all peanuts are inspected for aflatoxin. Peanuts are also processed at a high temperature to ensure any microorganisms are killed.U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) program
Peanuts were designated by the U.S. Congress to be one of America's basic crops. To protect domestic industry by keeping prices artificially high, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) aids peanut farmers through commodity programs. In the 2008 Farm Bill, the marketing quota for peanuts was eliminated and the Price Support Program was switched to a Direct and Counter-Cyclical Payment Program. Direct and counter-cyclical payments provide benefits to producers with eligible historical production of peanuts whenever the effective price is less than the targeted price.
Trade
The major producers/exporters of peanuts are the United States, Argentina, Sudan, Senegal, and Brazil. These five countries account for 71% of total world exports. In recent years, the United States has been the leading exporter of peanuts. The major peanut importers are the European Union (EU), Canada, and Japan. These three areas account for 78% of the world's imports.
Although India and China are the world's largest producers of peanuts, they account for a small part of international trade because most of their production is consumed domestically as peanut oil. Exports of peanuts from India and China are equivalent to less than 4% of world trade.
Ninety percent of India's production is processed into peanut oil. Only a nominal amount of hand-picked select-grade peanuts are exported. India prohibits the importation of all oil seeds, including peanuts.
The European Union is the largest consuming region in the world that does not produce peanuts. All of its consumption is supplied by imports. Consumption of peanuts in the EU is primarily as food, mostly as roasted-in-shell peanuts and as shelled peanuts used in confectionery and bakery products.
The average annual U.S. imports of peanuts are less than 0.5% of U.S. consumption. Two thirds of U.S. imports are roasted, unshelled peanuts. The major suppliers are Taiwan, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Mainland China, and Canada. The principal suppliers of shelled peanut imports are Argentina and Canada. Most of Canada's peanut butter is processed from Chinese peanuts. Imports of peanut butter from Argentina are in the form of a paste and must be further processed in the U.S. Other minor suppliers of peanut butter include Malawi, China, India, and Singapore.
Approximately 50% of all peanuts produced in the United States are grown within a 100 mi (160 km) radius of Dothan, Alabama.[51] Dothan is home to the National Peanut Festival established in 1938 and held each fall to honor peanut growers and celebrate the harvest.[52]
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